Host feeding in insect parasitoids: why destructively feed upon a host that excretes an alternative?

Host feeding is the consumption of host tissue by the adult female parasitoid. We studied the function of destructive host feeding and its advantage over non‐destructive feeding on host‐derived honeydew in the whitefly parasitoid Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). We allowed parasitoids to oviposit until they attempted to host feed. We either prevented or allowed host feeding. Parasitoids had access to sucrose solution, with or without additional access to honeydew. Parasitoids that were allowed to host feed did not have a higher egg load 20 or 48 h after host feeding than parasitoids prevented from host feeding. Host feeding did not increase the number of eggs matured within these periods, nor did the time spent host feeding positively affect any of these response variables. On the other hand, the presence of honeydew did have a positive effect on egg load 20 and 48 h after host feeding compared with parasitoids deprived of honeydew. Parasitoids with access to honeydew matured more eggs within these periods than honeydew‐deprived parasitoids. Host feeding increased life expectancy, but this effect was nullified when honeydew was supplied after the host‐feeding attempt. In conclusion, feeding on honeydew could be an advantageous alternative to host feeding in terms of egg quantity and longevity. This applies especially to parasitoids exploiting Homoptera, because these parasitoids can obtain honeydew from the host itself. It is possible that destructive host feeding has evolved to enable females to sustain the production of high‐quality anhydropic eggs, which may be important in the parasitoid's natural environment. We argue that future studies should take natural alternative food sources into more consideration.     

SEASONAL ANALYSIS OF VOLATILE ORGANIC BIOGENIC SUBSTANCES (VOBS) IN FRESHWATER PHYTOPLANKTON POPULATIONS DOMINATED BY DINOBRYON,MICROCYSTIS AND APHANIZOMENON1

Over the course of one year the volatile organic biogenic substances (VOBS) found in the water of a eutrophied shallow lake were determined by gas chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods. The substances detected belonged to nor-carotenoids, terpenoids, unsaturated hydrocarbons, ketones, and aldehydes. The occurrence of particular VOBS correlated with the frequency with which certain phytoplankton species were recorded. The latter showed a well developed succession in that year. The following correspondences were found: β-cyclocitral and Microcystis; heptadec-cis 5-ene and Oscillatoria redekei; geosmin and argosmin and Aphanizomenon gracile; hepta-trans, cis 2,4-dienal, deca-trans, cis 2,4-dienal and Dinobryon; octa-trans, cis 1,3,5-triene and Asterionella formosa. Dictyopterenes and ectocarpene were only detected in high amounts in one sample obtained in August. The VOBS exhibited marked dynamics in the lake and usually were rapidly eliminated from the water body.     

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON SILICON- AND PHOSPHORUS-LIMITED GROWTH AND COMPETITIVE INTERACTIONS AMONG THREE DIATOMS1

Three diatom species, Stephanodiscus hantzschii (Ehr.) Grun., Asterionella formosa Hass. and Fragilaria crotonensis Kitt. Hass. were isolated from Lake Maarsseveen where they are dominant and show a successional sequence. The physiological responses of each species to temperature and limitation by silicon and phosphorus were determined over the temperature range of 5° to 20° C using short-term batch culture methods. Stephanodiscus hantzschii had higher maximum growth rates than the other two species at all temperatures, and the maximum growth rates of all species increased with increasing temperature. Temperature affected not only maximum growth rates but also half-saturation constants (K_s) and the minimum cell quotas. S. hantzschii had low silicon requirements for growth under Si-limiting conditions, and A. formosa and F. crotonensis had higher and nearly identical silicon requirements. The K_s values for silicon for S. hantzschii were essentially constant from 5° to 20° C but varied greatly for the other two species. A. formosa had the lowest requirements for growth under phosphorus limitation, F. crotonensis was intermediate and S. hantzschii had the highest growth requirements for phosphorus. The K₁ values for phosphorus were constant over the temperature range for both A. formosa and F. crotonensis and were much higher and variable for S. hantzschii. Nutrient competition experiments were performed in continuous cultures at four temperatures and various Si:P ratios. The results generally, but not always, confirmed the predictions based on the Monod relationships for each species. Results not in agreement with predictions were usually because of similar physiological properties of A. formosa and F. crotonensis or because of decreased loss rates for F. crotonensis due to wall growth. In cultures with all three species phosphorus-limited (Si:P > 75), A. formosa often dominated as predicted, although F. crotonensis was sometimes the most abundant species. As predicted, S. hantzschii never dominated at high Si:P ratios. At intermediate Si:P ratios when A. formosa and F. crotonensis were both Si-limited and S. hantzschii P-limited, all three species coexisted because A. formosa and F. crotonensis have almost identical silicon requirements, although sometimes F. crotonensis was more abundant than predicted. At 10°C the results agreed best with the predictions; A. formosa dominated at high Si:P ratios and S. hantzschii dominated as predicted at low Si:P ratios when all three species were Si-limited.     

Two forms of egg defence in a chrysomelid beetle: egg clumping and excrement cover

Abstract.

• 1 Field experiments demonstrated that the faecal covering that female Microrhopala vittata (Fabr.) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) place over their egg masses significantly reduces egg mortality.
• 2 The bottom egg in the egg mass, which lies against the leaf of the host plant, suffers significantly higher mortality than the other eggs in the egg mass.
• 3 The parasite Chrysonotomyia sp. (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) generally parasitizes only the bottom egg in the egg mass, while predators rarely penetrate the faecal covering.
• 4 No significant relationship was found between mortality and the number of egg masses per leaf.
• 5 By placing eggs in masses, females may ensure that at least the upper eggs in any egg mass are effectively protected against virtually all natural enemies likely to pose a threat.

     

抗生素处理对感染Wolbachia的丽蚜小蜂生殖的影响

Wolbachia是一类广泛存在于节肢动物体内, 可以对寄主的生殖力及生殖行为产生影响的共生菌。用抗生素可以有效除去寄主体内的Wolbachia。本实验通过喂食浓度分别为1, 5和10 mg盐酸四环素/mL蔗糖水, 结合PCR检测丽蚜小蜂Encarsia formosa体内Wolbachia的去除效果; 解剖观察丽蚜小蜂F0代及F1, F2和F3代怀卵量和卵巢管数量, 评价Wolbachia对丽蚜小蜂生殖的影响。结果显示： 抗生素处理去除Wolbachia后F0代蜂的卵巢管数量与未处理蜂之间无显著差异（P=0.12）, 但F1, F2和F3代蜂的卵巢管均为6条, 显著少于F0代蜂的卵巢管数量（P<0.001）。抗生素处理去除Wolbachia后的F0代蜂怀卵量与未处理蜂相比显著下降, 但显著高于经抗生素处理去除Wolbachia后的F1, F2和F3代蜂怀卵量（P<0.001）, 后代（F1, F2, F3）蜂之间怀卵量无显著差异（P=0.59）。去除Wolbachia后, 丽蚜小蜂可以产生雄性后代, 但未见交配行为, 且雌蜂可不经交配而产生雌性后代。结果说明, Wolbachia不仅直接影响丽蚜小蜂的怀卵量, 而且还可以通过影响丽蚜小蜂卵巢管的发育影响丽蚜小蜂的怀卵量; 然而, 去除Wolbachia不改变雌蜂的孤雌生殖方式。     

Sublethal effects of a Beauveria bassiana-based mycopesticide on Dutch and Serbian populations of Encarsia formosa (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae)

ABSTRACT

The effects of a Beauveria bassiana-based product (trade name Naturalis-L; strain ATCC 74040) on the behaviour, life history traits and population growth of one commercial Dutch strain and two local Serbian populations (Bujanovac and Negotin) of Encarsia formosa Gahan (Hymen.: Aphelinidae) were evaluated in laboratory bioassays. In a two-choice test, parasitoids from all tested populations preferred to parasitise untreated whitefly nymphs over those treated with 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.125 and 0.0625?ml/l of the mycopesticide. The longevity of adults of population Bujanovac exposed for 48?h to residues of the mycoinsecticide applied at the LC₅₀ concentration was 1.4 days shorter than that of control wasps. Total parasitism was significantly reduced (by 17.5, 26.2 and 31.4% for the Negotin, Dutch and Bujanovac populations, respectively) compared to control, as well as adult emergence in the F₁ generation (reductions of 20.3 and 26.7%, for the Dutch and Bujanovac populations, respectively). The instantaneous rate of increase (r_i) of surviving adults was also significantly reduced by mycopesticide treatment by 6.3, 13.8 and 15.1%, for the Negotin, Bujanovac, and Dutch populations, respectively. Adult parasioids emerged from pupae treated with the LC₅₀ concentration of the mycopesticide showed slower juvenile development, longevity, parasitism, adult emergence, and r_i values, but the reduction in r_i was significant only for the Bujanovac and Dutch populations (4.2 and 8.3%, respectively). The implications of these results on integrated control of the greenhouse whitefly Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood (Hem.: Aleyrodidae) are discussed in terms of adjusting the timing of Naturalis-L applications and parasitoid release.     

Hidden diversity in the freshwater planktonic diatom Asterionella formosa

Many freshwater and marine algal species are described as having cosmopolitan distributions. Whether these widely distributed morphologically similar algae also share a similar gene pool remains often unclear. In the context of island biogeography theory, stronger spatial isolation deemed typical of freshwater lakes should restrict gene flow and lead to higher genetic differentiation among lakes. Using nine microsatellite loci, we investigate the genetic diversity of a widely distributed freshwater planktonic diatom, Asterionella formosa, across different lakes in Switzerland and the Netherlands. We applied a hierarchical spatial sampling design to determine the geographical scale at which populations are structured. A subset of the isolates was additionally analysed using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers. Our results revealed complex and unexpected population structure in A. formosa with evidence for both restricted and moderate to high gene flow at the same time. Different genetic markers (microsatellites and AFLPs) analysed with a variety of multivariate methods consistently revealed that genetic differentiation within lakes was much stronger than among lakes, indicating the presence of cryptic species within A. formosa. We conclude that the hidden diversity found in this study is expected to have implications for the further use of A. formosa in biogeographical, conservation and ecological studies. Further research using species‐level phylogenetic markers is necessary to place the observed differentiation in an evolutionary context of speciation.     

Costs and benefits of polyandry in a placental poeciliid fish Heterandria formosa are in accordance with the parent-offspring conflict theory of placentation

In viviparous species, a conflict over maternal resource allocation may arise between mothers and embryos, between siblings, and between maternal and paternal genes within an embryo due to relatedness asymmetries. We performed two experiments to study the effects of polyandry and brood relatedness on offspring growth in a placental fish (Heterandria formosa). Polyandry was beneficial as it increased the probability of pregnancy, possibly to avoid genetic incompatibility. However, females mated to four males produced offspring that had a longer maturation time than those of monandrous females. When within-brood relatedness was manipulated, the size of the newborn offspring decreased with time in low-relatedness treatment, whereas in highly related broods, offspring size was constant. Low within-brood relatedness may lead to less cooperative offspring in terms of resource extraction from the mother, which may lead to impaired development during gestation. Offspring conflict may thus reduce the benefits of polyandry in viviparous species.     

VARIATION IN OFFSPRING SIZE WITH BIRTH ORDER IN PLACENTAL FISH: A ROLE FOR ASYMMETRIC SIBLING COMPETITION?

Asymmetric sibling competition arises when siblings with different competitive abilities share a limited resource. Such competition occurs in species with postnatal parental care and may also occur when mothers provision embryos between fertilization and birth (matrotrophy). We hypothesized that the combination of matrotrophy and the simultaneous provisioning of embryos in different stages of development (superfetation) leads to asymmetric competition between sibling embryos. Moreover, we expect the intensity of this competition to increase with the level of superfetation as high levels of superfetation result in greater temporal overlap between broods. This hypothesis predicts that offspring from early broods, which predominantly compete with less‐developed siblings, will be larger at birth than offspring from later broods, which experience competition from more and less‐developed siblings. Data on offspring size at birth from two populations of the highly matrotrophic fish, Heterandria formosa, and similar studies of poeciliid fish spanning a range of life histories are consistent with our hypothesis. Together these results suggest that sibling competition is a direct consequence of the evolution of matrotrophy and superfetation in poeciliid fish.     

Reverse sex-biased philopatry in a cooperative bird: genetic consequences and a social cause

The genetic structure of a group or population of organisms can profoundly influence the potential for inbreeding and, through this, can affect both dispersal strategies and mating systems. We used estimates of genetic relatedness as well as likelihood-based methods to reconstruct social group composition and examine sex biases in dispersal in a Costa Rican population of white-throated magpie-jays ( Calocitta formosa , Swainson 1827), one of the few birds suggested to have female-biased natal philopatry. We found that females within groups were more closely related than males, which is consistent with observational data indicating that males disperse upon maturity, whereas females tend to remain in their natal territories and act as helpers. In addition, males were generally unrelated to one another within groups, suggesting that males do not disperse with or towards relatives. Finally, within social groups, female helpers were less related to male than female breeders, suggesting greater male turnover within groups. This last result indicates that within the natal group, female offspring have more opportunities than males to mate with nonrelatives, which might help to explain the unusual pattern of female-biased philopatry and male-biased dispersal in this system. We suggest that the novel approach adopted here is likely to be particularly useful for short-term studies or those conducted on rare or difficult-to-observe species, as it allows one to establish general patterns of philopatry and genetic structure without the need for long-term monitoring of identifiable individuals.